PC Evolution -- in Charts

Topics --

Generations
Processors
Memory
Disks
USB
Wifi
Mice & Keyboards
Displays
Refurbishing
Software
Related Articles

Generations

There are no hard and fast rules about which technologies you will find together in computer systems. Here's what I most commonly encounter when I refurbish computers:

Generation:	Examples:	Most Popular:	Number of Cores / Threads:	Passmark Benchmark:	Memory:	Disk:	Other Storage:	Display:
Current Multicore	Intel i-Series	2021 on	4 to 8 / many	> 10,000	DDR4 or DDR5	M.2 SSD	USB sticks, External Disk	HDMI, DisplayPort, (VGA)
Mature Multicore	Intel i-Series	2011 - 2020	2 / 4 or 4 / 8	2,000 - 10,000	DDR3 or DDR4	Sata SSD	USB sticks, External Disk	HDMI, DVI, (VGA)
Dual Core	Core 2 Duo	2005 - 2011	2 / 2	750 - 2,000	DDR2	Sata HDD	Optical Disc, USB sticks, External Disk	DVI, VGA
Single Core	Pentium IV, Pentium M	2000 - 2007	1 / 1	< 750	DDR	IDE HDD	Optical Disc, Zip Drive	VGA

Passmark Software's benchmarks are standard for measuring processor power.

Processors

From Single Core to Multicore

Evolution to Multicore

CPU Performance Increases

Windows

Windows Version:	Released to Manufacturing:

Windows 12	2026?
Windows 11	2021
Windows 10	2015
Windows 8.1	2013
Windows 8	2012
Windows 7	2009
Windows Vista	2007
Windows XP	2001
Windows ME	2000
Windows 98SE2	1999
Windows 98	1998
Windows 95	1995
Windows 3.1	1992
Windows 3.0	1990

Memory

Memory Stick Notches Define Memory Generations — **Notch Locations Define Memory Generations**
(Courtesy: myxxgirl.com)

Disks

Disk Evolution — **Disk Data Transfer Rates**

Common Disk Drives Today

Drive Type:	Interface:

HDD	SATA III
SSD	SATA III
M.2 SSD	PCIe NVMe on motherboard
M.2 SSD	PCIe NVMe via card slot adapter
External HDD or SSD	USB-C or USB-A (usually slower)

(HDD = Hard Disk Drive, SSD = Solid State Drive)

**Common M.2 Keys**
Courtesy: Dell Computers)

Your M.2 Key Must Match Your Motherboard's Key — **Your M.2 Drive Key Must Match Your Motherboard's Key**
(Courtesy: WikiWand.com)

Common M.2 Sizes

Name:	Size Millimeters:	Size Inches:

M.2 2230	22 x 30	0.87 x 1.18
M.2 2242	22 x 42	0.87 x 1.65
M.2 2260	22 x 60	0.87 x 2.36
M.2 2280	22 x 80	0.87 x 3.15
M.2 2210	22 x 110	0.87 x 4.33

USB

The Difference in USB Thumb Drive Speeds is Dramatic

Introduced:	Standard:	Max. Speed:
2022	USB 4 v2.0	80 Gbit/s
2019	USB 4	40 Gbit/s
2017	USB 3.2	20 Gbit/s
2013	USB 3.1	10 Gbit/s
2008	USB 3.0	5 Gbit/s
2001	USB 2.0	480 Mbit/s
1996	USB 1.x	1.5 to 12 Mbit/s

(Actual data transfer rates are lower than these theoretical "signaling rates" that define USB port types.)

If you use a USB port with a USB memory stick of a different speed, the speed you will get is the slower of the two.

Wifi

Generation:	IEEE Standard:	Adopted:	Speed (Mb/s):
WiFi 1	802.11b	1999	1-11
WiFi 2	802.11a	1999	6-54
WiFi 3	802.11g	2003	6.54
WiFi 4	802.11n	2009	6.5-600
WiFi 5	802.11ac	2013	6.5-6933
WiFi 6	802.11ax	2021	up to 9608
WiFi 7	802.11be	2024	up to 23,059
WiFi 8	802.11bn	2028?	up to 100,000

802.11 Standard:	B	G	N	AC	AX	BE	BN

Year:	1999	2003	2009	2013	2021	2024	2028?
Security:	BAD!	Old	Old	Okay	Best	Best	Best
Encrypt Modes:	WEP	WPA2, WPA, more	WPA2, WPA, more	WPA3, WPA2, more	WPA3, WPA2, more	WPA3, WPA2, more	WPA3, WPA2, more

Evaluation:	Standard:	Usually Labeled As:

Best	WPA3	WPA3 Personal, WPA3-SAE
Okay	WPA2	WPA2 Personal, WPA2-PSK2, WPA-PSK
Bad	WPA	WPA Personal,WPA-PSK, WPA Shared Key
Bad (never use)	WEP	WEP 64-bits, WEP 128-bits, WEP Shared Key
Bad (never use)	Open	WEP Open System, No encryption, None

Authentication

	Setting:	Use When:

Best	AES	Your router and all your wireless devices support WPA3 or WPA2.
Only if necessary	AUTO --or-- TKIP+AES	You have a mixed set of wireless devices. The router will use the encryption standard appropriate to each wireless device. For a more secure network, get rid of those old TKIP devices!
Bad	TKIP	Your router and/or your wireless devices use WPA.

Mice and Keyboards

Displays

Refurbishing

The stickers on a used computer will tell you whether it's worth your while...

RexxInfo.org (Logos are courtesy of the Vendors)

Software

**Desktop/Laptop Operating Systems Market Share - 2025**
(Numbers courtesy of Statcounter.com)

Programming Language Popularity

How to Speed Up Your Wifi
Why You Should Use Generic Computers and FOSS
How to Secure Your Home Wireless Network
How to Get 100% Availability for Your Home Office

Fixing / Refurbishing Computers --

The Ultimate Guide to Fixing Computer Hardware
The Ultimate Guide to Computer Refurbishing
How to Refurbish Old Single Core Computers
How to Get a Free Computer... Really!

Linux --

Linux Commands to Display Hardware Information
Linux Performance Tips
How to Upgrade Linux PC Hardware
How to Identify Linux Performance Bottlenecks
Reclaim Big Disk Space by File Conversions
How to Shrink PDF Files
How to Traverse Directories in Scripts
How to Use PUSHD and POPD
Bash to Python Mapping & Comparison
All About Scripting Languages

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